Modern researchers unanimously agree that the birth and formation of astrology occurred between the 3rd and 5th millennia BCE. At that time, it was part of a religious system. People (Babylonians, Chaldeans, Sumerians, Akkadians) living in ancient Mesopotamia (between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers) studied astrology. Undoubtedly, it can be stated that the knowledge these Mesopotamian peoples possessed about universal laws was inherited from earlier civilizations. Probably, astrology reached the Fertile Crescent from the legendary Atlantis—the example of a highly developed culture and spirituality.
Later, from Mesopotamia, astrology spread to Greece and Egypt, where at a certain point it transformed from religion into proto-science. From there, it continued moving further eastward (to India, China, Persia) and even reached the shores of the Yucatán Peninsula (once inhabited by the Maya people).
Contemporary archaeologists have discovered numerous clay tablets containing cuneiform cosmological information. By studying them, scholars have established the fundamental principles of astrological teachings of ancient peoples:
– the world has no beginning or end;
– the Universe is in continuous cyclical motion;
– human life and destiny are subject to cosmic laws;
– astral deities govern time and all earthly processes;
– there exists a polarity of good and evil in the Universe.
The content of the clay tablets also confirms that astrology was an inseparable part of ancient people’s lives. Any activity of state importance had to be carried out in strict accordance with cosmological laws and rules. Consulting astrologers, kings chose the dates for coronations, construction of temples and palaces, initiation of military actions, and many other events.
As astrology spread throughout the world, it became interwoven with the civilizations of various countries. The characteristics and level of spiritual development of any given people determined the specifics of teachings about universal laws and their influence on human destinies.
However, there are still many blank spots in the history of astrology. When attempting to understand it, one often gets the impression that great knowledge was gradually forgotten. In particular, there is evidence that a very thorough and sophisticated understanding of astronomy (that is, in truth, astrology, since astronomy at that time was an inseparable component of astrology) existed in Egypt during the time of the Pyramids’ construction, approximately 2400 BCE. At that time, quite complex calendars were practically established, and by 1650 BCE, the Egyptians seemingly began erasing from memory the astronomical basis of those calendars.
Overall, it can be stated that astrology arrived in Europe (we will focus specifically on European astrology, as the branch most similar to contemporary worldview) from Persian, Egyptian, and Babylonian sources. The intermediaries in this process, as well as interpreters and disseminators of astrological knowledge during the first centuries CE, were philosophers from Greece. Indeed, Greek works served as the source of astrology for the civilized world of that period, particularly the Roman Empire. Astrology played a pivotal role in the Roman Empire and by the 4th century CE had become fully established as a universally recognized science.
However, after the fall of the Roman Empire around 500 CE and the emergence of barbarian European kingdoms (modern-day France, Germany, Italy, etc.), the astrological tradition in Western and Central Europe came to an abrupt halt. Likewise, in the Byzantine Empire, the religious and political situation was such that it practically did not allow room for astrological practice.
At this point, the Arabs entered the scene. By 711 CE, their empire spanned from present-day Spain in the west to India in the east. In the 8th century, Arab kings and Muslim leaders generally encouraged their intelligentsia to learn the Greek language and adopt the scientific achievements of other peoples. Thus, Greek astrology, alongside other Greek sciences, became an integral component of Arab Islamic science. It was in this form that astrology continued to develop, while in Europe, the practice of astrology was extremely difficult for six centuries (from 500 to 1100 CE).
One of the most significant reasons for the decline of astrology in Europe was the poor state of mathematical and general scientific education following the “death” of the Roman Empire. However, by 1100, the West finally recognized the necessity of scientific development—much as had occurred in the Muslim East during the 8th century. Arabic scientific (including astrological) texts began to be translated en masse into Latin. The result was an era of renewed interest in astrology in Europe—the Renaissance—which lasted until the 17th century.
The Scientific Revolution created in some Western intellectuals the illusion that in the near future, all the secrets of nature would be revealed through intellect and experimental science. The widespread popularity of Copernicus’s heliocentric theory, along with the discovery of new planets, was perceived as disproving astrology, which relied on Ptolemy’s geocentric model and only the five visible planets.
As a result, by the end of the 17th century, judicial astrology was practically nonexistent in continental Europe. In England, however, the astrological tradition continued—or at least was not completely severed—due to the country’s strong traditional practice of herbal medicine, which even incorporated astrological knowledge.
It was precisely at this time that astrologers began being challenged to prove the “scientific” nature of their practice—an oddly paradoxical demand for one of the oldest sciences. In modern times, the definition of science has become extremely narrow. Anything that could not be demonstrated through “stick and string” methods was declared unscientific. Those astrologers seeking public approval began offering (and continue to proclaim to this day) various rationalistic explanations of astrology. Yet, regarding a field of knowledge built upon ancient philosophical and religious concepts, this proves rather difficult.
At this time, as science transformed and major changes occurred in the world, the role of the astrologer in society also shifted. Previously, some astrologers worked concurrently as mathematicians, physicians, and translators. They held high levels of education, and their clients were primarily aristocrats and the Church—the ruling classes of the era. For instance, one of the most important representatives of Medieval Astrology, Guido Bonatti, was of noble birth and predicted to clergymen what ecclesiastical rank they would attain—bishop, cardinal, or possibly Pope. He advised members of royal families and aristocrats on matters of political, military, and state affairs.
Later, power largely passed into the hands of the bourgeoisie, and rising literacy among the working class brought about the emergence of popular astrology—the same kind that today fills the final pages of countless media outlets. The educational system also shifted its focus: primary emphasis was placed on training engineers, managers, and bankers, while mastery of languages and philosophy gradually became less valued and important. Thus, when a new revival of astrology began in Europe in the mid-to-late 19th century, only a few were able to engage with the sources, most of which remained untranslated from Latin, Arabic, and Greek.
A significant degree of societal disillusionment with the idea that all human secrets could be explained solely through intellect led to a renewed interest in astrology during the 19th century. The understanding of science gradually broadened, and by the 20th century, no one was surprised by a science such as psychology, whose subject matter and methods in most cases were far removed from rationalistic standards.
Inspired by the societal success of psychology, some 20th-century astrologers began attempting to “psychologize” astrology, aligning it closely with psychology. As a result, psychological astrology emerged and flourished, focusing (in contrast to classical astrology) on the inner spiritual world of the individual.
By the end of the 20th century, interest had grown significantly in classical astrological works and in those methods and traditions that had fallen into obscurity. From this emerged a renaissance of Horary Astrology and the translation of numerous texts from Latin and Greek through the Hindsight project.
In the material sciences, a gradual awareness began to emerge that there are certain boundaries beyond which entirely different laws come into play. Discoveries in physics alone provide evidence that rationalistic frameworks, however solid, are slowly beginning to crack.
We are confident that astrology can offer people far greater benefit than it currently does.
To conclude this historical overview—here are several of the most renowned figures in astrology today. Throughout the history of astrology, many remarkable philosophers and sages have emerged:
- Ptolemy (2nd century CE) – one of the founders of astronomy and astrology. We won’t detail all his countless contributions to astronomy—these can be found in many reference sources and online. Nevertheless, Ptolemy is the author of the “Tetrabiblos,” the first comprehensive manual of astrology. In the “Tetrabiblos,” he demonstrates exceptional care in thoroughly explaining astrological principles from the scientific perspective of his time.
- Al-Biruni (10th–11th century) – wrote extensively on medicine, geography, physics, and astronomy, and also authored the treatise “The Book of Instruction in the Elements of the Art of Astrology,” a textbook of astrology for beginners.
- Paracelsus (15th–16th century), the renowned healer who honored astrology as an essential component of his art. He stated that a physician without the skill of interpreting astrological constellations is a “pseudomedic,” and that medicinal remedies are located in the vault of heaven.
- Tycho Brahe (16th century), known as the “king of astronomers,” was also an astrologer and alchemist. He achieved exceptional precision in astronomical measurements, composed astrological almanacs for the Danish king, and interpreted “birth horoscopes” for the king’s children. Several of Tycho Brahe’s prophecies gained widespread fame.
- Johannes Kepler (16th–17th century) – a monumental astronomer whose laws lie at the heart of spacecraft orbital calculations. In his first astrological almanac, he predicted an extremely harsh winter and a Turkish invasion of Austria. When both predictions came true, Kepler gained a strong reputation as a prophet. While rejecting vulgar astrology akin to newspaper “daily horoscopes,” he introduced new elements into astrological theory.
- Carl Gustav Jung (19th–20th century), the renowned psychologist and psychiatrist. He studied astrology in depth and applied it in his clinical practice. One of his astrological studies gained immense recognition and provided a powerful impetus for reflection on human nature and the essence of astrology.
Quite an impressive company, wouldn’t you say? Then join us!
