O.Chizhevsky – Physical Factors of the Historical Process 1. Socio-Psychological Characteristics of the Complete Cycle

O.Chizhevsky Physical Factors of the Historical Process

SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FULL CYCLE

A convenient pretext for dividing each cycle into four periods was provided by data obtained from studies of historical events that developed in parallel with corresponding changes in solar activity. Analyzing the course of each event separately and then comparing known stages of its development with similar, time-corresponding stages of solar activity in other historical events, it is not difficult to conclude that, despite the absence of any connection between them, all of them proceed as if along an identical path, making similar rises, turns, and falls at certain moments. This analysis included a wide variety of events from world history, from ancient Greek and Roman uprisings and campaigns to the revolutions and wars of modern times. The formal correspondences in the development of historical phenomena that sometimes have nothing in common either in space or in historical time, yet exhibit a certain parallelism in their evolution, serve as an incentive to assume the existence of a periodically acting factor that operates independently of local temporal or spatial conditions and endows the course of diverse phenomena with morphological identity. The distinctive features of the latter, though not stationary, are subject only to fluctuations within certain limits.

Synthesizing the collected material, we obtained for each period of the historio-metric cycle the following characteristics, briefly outlined here — a kind of ideal form underlying each historio-metric cycle, a cycle freed from various accidents and superficial phenomena of temporary or local significance.

I. The First Period of the Historio-Metric Cycle (Period of Minimal Excitability)

The characteristic features of this period are as follows: the dispersal of the masses, the indifference of the masses to political and military issues, a peaceful mood among the masses, compliance, tolerance, and so on. Such behavior of individuals or entire groups forces the ruling spheres of the state to take appropriate measures: concluding a series of truces with the enemy and, ultimately, peace; surrendering on harsh terms; opening diplomatic relations; declaring neutrality; then demobilizing troops, and so on. In the memoirs of contemporaries and historical studies, this period is marked by a general peaceful mood, a reluctance to enter into any disputes, the end of military actions, and the triumph of the principle of non-interference in many spheres of international and national military-political life. Historians attempt to explain these facts by exhaustion of moral and physical strength, mental fatigue after past excitements, the collapse of state unity, the cessation of influence of a previously unifying cause, the loss of combat readiness, the departure or fall of leaders who have lost the trust of the masses and their authority over them, and so on.

The aspirations of humanity in other spheres of activity also change: the flow of public life, falling into the channel of calm and peace, gains the opportunity to apply its quiet course to the achievement of other goals, the resolution of other problems. Here begins the spiritual activity of man; cultural values are created, pure art and science are placed at the forefront of public life, replacing the turbulent froth of recent days and devaluing with their achievements everything hastily and insecurely created.

During the period of minimum, humanity seeks tranquility, rests from the anxieties of previous years, and regains physical strength for a new era of inevitable anxieties. Studies of historical events that occurred in the first period allowed us to establish a number of facts according to which the period of minimal excitability contributes to:

• the conclusion of peace treaties;
• conquest expeditions of a non-mass nature;
• surrenders;
• occupations;
• maximum reduction of parliamentarism;
• strengthening of autocracy or rule by a few.

II. The Second Period of the Historio-Metric Cycle (Period of Increasing Excitability)

The psychological and historical complexity of this period required extensive research, as a result of which we collected a significant amount of material related to this period. Here we are forced to limit ourselves to only a general schematic remark. Already at the beginning of this period, historical works characterize a significantly greater rise in the excitement of the masses than in the previous period. Unity of the masses does not yet exist; only gradually do parties and groups that had dispersed during the period of minimal excitability begin to reorganize, leaders emerge, and programs are defined. The power of suggestion re-emerges in the masses: statesmen, commanders, orators, and the press regain their significance. Political and military issues begin to emerge on the horizon of public life and gradually become more acute. The tendency toward perseveration of homogeneous ideas is observed everywhere, filling the intellectual activity of the masses. In addition to the will of individuals, concentration on homogeneous military or political themes, of course, provided there are favorable causes, gradually increases; ideas circulating among the masses begin to dominate. Yet in the resolution of important state issues, hesitation and indecision are still noticeable; conclusions are not yet fully mature, but preparations for war may already be rumbling, and the international situation may be complicated. However, open struggle or war is still not dared; delays continue, waiting for the appropriate moment and sensing its approach through the gradual rise of general mass excitement.

Indeed, soon, within a year or two, or sometimes even less, a unanimous demand of the masses arises, aimed at resolving certain issues. Now even individuals far removed from military or political affairs are forced to attach themselves to one political or military group or another. By the end of the second period, which may gradually take on a turbulent character and reveal the impatience and nervousness of the masses, we observe one of the most important phenomena in the military-political life of communities: the striving for the unification of various nationalities constituting a given community for the purpose of defense or attack, and the merging of various political groups to oppose other political groups.

The significance of this period lies in the fact that it forms the basis for the further development of historical events throughout the given cycle within a given human community and, to some extent, even determines their course during the period of maximum excitability. The period under consideration always occupies the same interval of time in all human communities; its duration or brevity is determined by the state of solar activity on the one hand and the diversity of political, economic, and other factors on the other. In addition, this period assumes, depending on the same causes, various forms of manifestation. During the second period, three main phases should be distinguished in the order of their gradual development:

1. Emergence of ideas in the masses;
2. Grouping of ideas;
3. Manifestation of a single dominant idea among the masses of a given human community up to the initial moment of the third period.

1) Emergence of main ideas. During the first phase of the period of increasing excitability, the emergence of main ideas depends directly on internal state policies, economic and international military-political factors, which in this case are of equal importance: the economic state of the state, the degree of organization and stability of power and the state apparatus, and the international situation — threats of war, blockade, occupation, and so on, wandering among the masses in large numbers. If at this moment in a given community there are no factors of dissatisfaction with the existing order or state of affairs, the above phenomena may arise, which will determine a more or less calm course of the historio-metric cycle. However, there are still no guarantees that sharp complications will not arise in the further development of the cycle; indeed, almost always, even with minimal presence of excitatory causes, the next period may be marked by any private events with the participation of the masses.

2) Carriers of ideas. The ideas that have thus emerged can serve as the psychic center for the formation of separate groups united by a single main idea. This process proceeds in accordance with class consciousness, the degree of material security, and the personal qualities of each individual. The groups formed in this way may elevate a new leader from their midst to subordinate their psychic imbalance to a certain psychic center, where incoming ideas are summed up, transformed into uniform directives, and create certain formulas of action for the organized group.

3) The third phase develops from the second and consists of:

• a) the manifestation of a single supreme idea that absorbs many group ideas;
• b) the unification of a whole series of separate groups around the supreme psychic center, which subordinates the masses;
• c) the mass concentration of a single idea.

All three phases of the second period sometimes develop quite mechanically, without the organizing participation of acting individuals, thereby preparing completely unexpected effects of mass unity by the beginning of the third period of the historio-metric cycle — the period of maximum excitability. Thus, the need arises to resolve first and foremost the primary fundamental question that agitates the masses in a human community.

III. The Third Period of the Historio-Metric Cycle (Period of Maximum Excitability)

This is the main stage in the development of each cycle, resolving universal historical problems of humanity and laying the foundations for new historical eras. It impels humanity to its greatest follies and its greatest benefits: it embodies ideas in life through the shedding of blood and the clash of steel. If we were to give a comparative-historical characterization of this period, we would have to repeat the most significant events of world history: all of them, as shown by comparisons of solar and human activity, occurred during epochs of heightened activity of the Sun. During this period, the greatest revolutions and the greatest clashes of peoples took place, which inaugurated new eras in the life of humanity and justified the terrible formula of Heraclitus the Obscure: “Polemos panton esti pater kai basileus” — war is the father and king of all.

The parallelism of the activity of two substances — solar and cerebral matter — separated from each other, manifests itself with particular vividness and clarity precisely during this period. Here we cannot dwell on the consideration of the vast amount of material collected for the study of the period of maximum excitability. In the “Foundations of Historometry,” this issue is given not one page. Here we will only point out the main factors whose presence in the masses determines the emergence and development of decisive events in human communities:

1. Excitatory influence on the masses by popular leaders, commanders, and so on;
2. The excitatory effect of moods and ideas circulating among the masses;
3. The speed of excitability from the unity of the psychic center;
4. The extent of territorial coverage by mass movements;
5. Integration and individualization of the masses.

Never does the influence of leaders and commanders reach such enormous force as during the period of maximum tension in the luminous activity of the Sun. At this time, sometimes a single timely word or gesture is enough to move entire armies and masses of people. A single wave of a leader’s hand gathers under the banners heterogeneous nationalities entering the state, opposing parties, and groups constituting the community. At this epoch, the word of the leader — a winged word — performs a miraculous deed: it is listened to, obeyed, whereas entire streams of persuasion that sounded during the period of minimum could not lead to the desired result. Now even the name of a leader, spoken aloud, evokes a powerful surge of inspiration. The masses follow the leader blindly, without reasoning, carried away by the whirlwind of sharp excitement and ecstasy. The force of the influence of leaders mechanically elevates gifted individuals above the masses, regardless of traditional norms and established laws. And so, at the heights of mass movements, we see the greatest military and political geniuses known to humanity, spiritual leaders, champions of freedom, founders of various human associations. All of them, breaking through the thick of nations as vivid embodiments of the aspirations of the masses of the moment, already lead them and, with their help, lay the foundations for new human formations, new forms of social life, and new types of spiritual quests.

Such elevations, as a special study of general history shows, can occur only in cases of mass unity, and the latter is observed exclusively in epochs and moments of intensified solar activity. No less important are the ideas circulating among the masses up to the period of maximum excitability. In this case, the influence of oral agitation, as well as the press, can acquire decisive significance for the outcome of a political or military movement.

The period of maximum excitability can justly be called the period of the revelation of the face of the masses and the sounding of the voice of the people. Historians are at a loss before the facts indicating that ideas that dared not be spoken a year or two ago are now expressed openly and boldly; the masses become more impatient, restless, and excited; they begin to raise their voices, demand, and arm themselves. Demonstrations become more malicious and hostile; mass gatherings no longer proceed peacefully: the masses imperiously demand, with sword in hand, recognition of their decisions; impulses are no longer restrained and, immediately seized by the masses, lead to the overthrow of everything that agitated and troubled minds. Individual whims and antics immediately become law, and anyone who tries to oppose them is punished; a deep hatred for enemies seizes the population, leading to extermination, as if paralyzed by some strange enchantment.

During the period of maximum excitability, sometimes the slightest pretext is enough for the masses to flare up, rise in rebellion, or rush to war. Even a rumor spread among the masses can cause general agitation and revolt. What in the period of minimum usually provokes calm discussion, at this time excites the masses and leads to rebellions, wars, and bloody episodes. The masses crave movement; troops can barely be restrained; soldiers are inclined to mutiny; the people — to anarchy. In short, excitement grows extraordinarily, and the human organism demands release. This is explained by the fact that the combination of the above causes causes a sharp change in the nervous-psychic tone of the masses, increasing their nervous-psychic reaction to external stimuli. Individuals are unable to suppress their heightened reflex excitability, displaying very significant reactions even to weak and insignificant stimuli.

Notes of contemporaries testify to the astonishing speed with which popular uprisings and mass movements in general spread during the period of maximum excitability. Here are a few descriptions of the speed of the spread of uprisings drawn from various sources: the uprising swept the country with extraordinary speed; in a few days, huge regions were roused; everything joined the rebels as if by magic; the revolt spread across the state with the speed of a hurricane; the uprising flared up almost simultaneously in different parts of the country, drawing under its banners huge crowds of people; the rumble of the uprising rolled like thunder over the entire country; the flames of international war engulfed vast spaces, and the entire population — from the smallest to the greatest — took part in the rebellion. No wonder that Titus Livius called social conflicts “a contagious plague.”

In addition to the speed of the spread of mass movements, attention should also be paid to the significance of territorial coverage. Indeed, a rebellion that begins in one state, under certain conditions, can penetrate neighboring countries. History knows examples when wars, uprisings, and other mass movements, in a short period of time, engulfed vast spaces — lands of many peoples and even entire continents. The basis of the above is the unanimity of the masses, which is especially clearly manifested during the period when any military or political issues are being resolved. Now, at the call of a leader, tens or hundreds of thousands of people can gather under battle banners, inspired by a single thought and a single desire. In place of enmity reigns unanimity, and a general opinion flares up in the minds. This unanimity during the period of maximum excitability is capable of miracles; even recent enemies can become friends to jointly confront the most powerful and formidable danger or to resolve a common and important issue for all. At such moments, nationality, party affiliation, and social status partially fade; private quarrels subside, and all who can hurry to the designated assembly points. In short, for the sake of some military enterprises, campaigns, or uprisings, complete agreement and peace are established in the country between previously hostile elements of the state. At such moments, the entire country, as one person, is ready to pursue the set goal. This consciousness of unity and complete solidarity in the masses destroys all disputes and disagreements. Psychic contagion or mutual suggestion reaches its highest point, and the masses turn into a collective individual; the collective is individualized. This causes various phenomena characteristic of any struggle, and mass movements usually experience abnormal deviations.

Sometimes the heat of the struggle reveals the entire vast sphere of human madness, imbalance, and passion. Spontaneous violence, cruelty, frenzy, epileptic frenzy, thirst for revenge, epidemic of murders, panics, pogroms, devastating raids, desperate battles, mass exterminations, bloody baths, as well as uprisings, rebellions associated with the manifestation of fanaticism, become apparent. The masses and crowds can triumph at the sight of the most terrible violence, atrocities, and murders. They invent painful executions. Madness is embodied in life. What was considered impossible and wild in the period of minimal excitability can, during the period of maximum, go hand in hand with morality and high ideals. Before these impulses and manifestations of both masses and individuals, due to an extraordinary state of mental disturbance, the senses of danger, self-preservation, and even instinct must fade. Thus, the ground is prepared for resolving issues of universal historical significance — the ground on which systems of human communities are built. Here events occur that are hardly matched in other periods of the historio-metric cycle.

We confirm the fact that the greatest revolutions, wars, and other mass movements that created state systems, laid the foundations for turning points in history, and shook the life of humanity across entire continents tend to coincide with the epoch of maximum tension in solar activity and develop the highest intensity at those moments.

Studies of historical events that occurred in the third period allowed us to establish a number of facts according to which the period of maximum excitability contributes to:

• the unification of the masses;
• the elevation of leaders, commanders, and statesmen;
• the solemnization of ideas supported by the masses;
• maximum development of parliamentarism;
• democratic and social reforms;
• popular rule and restriction of autocracy;
• uprisings, disorders, rebellions, revolutions;
• wars, campaigns, expeditions;
• emigrations, resettlements, persecutions, and other outbursts of mass human activity.

Illustrations of the above can be provided by several examples from the vast number of coincidences between solar and human activity that occur throughout world history. The dates of epochs (with an amplitude of 2-3 years) of maximum solar activity (according to chronicles, annals, and astronomical data) are completely synchronous with the most important historical events.

Turning points in world history:

• 1492 — the fall of Muslim rule in Spain; the discovery of America; the beginning of modern history;
• 1789 — the Great French Revolution; the beginning of contemporary history;
• 1917 — the Revolution in Russia, of universal historical significance.

Major uprisings and revolutions:

• 1306 — the Great Uprising in England;
• 1358 — the Jacquerie in France;
• 1368 — the Uprising in China;
• 1381 — the Peasants’ Revolt in England;
• 1525 — the Peasants’ War in Germany;
• 1648 — the English Revolution;
• 1789 — the Revolution in France;
• 1830 — the July Revolution;
• 1848 — the February Revolution and the pan-European crisis;
• 1860 — the Uprising in Italy;
• 1870 — the Paris Commune;
• 1905, 1917 — the Revolution in Russia.

Crusades:

• 1094-96 — the First Crusade;
• 1147 — the Second;
• 1187 — the Third;
• 1194 — the Fourth;
• 1212 — the Children’s Crusade;
• 1224 — the Fifth;
• 1270 — the Seventh.

The Sixth Crusade, begun in 1248 (minimum), was carried out not by the masses but by Louis IX with a small number of troops.

Great Migrations of Peoples:

• 374; 409; 449-481-452; 568.

Mass persecutions of Jews:

• 1093 — Southern Europe;
• 1144 — Germany and Italy;
• 1182 — France;
• 1215 — Western Europe;
• 1290 — England;
• 1306 — France;
• 1348 — Europe;
• 1391-94 — Spain, France;
• 1481 — Spain;
• 1491-94 — Spain, Lithuania;
• 1704 — Ukraine;
• 1830 — Europe;
• 1849 — Europe;
• 1881-82 — Russia, Hungary, and others.

Persecutions of Christians:

• 303; 362; 575; and others.

Bloody episodes in general history:

• 1185 — the massacre of Latins in Thessalonica;
• 1204 — the destruction of Byzantium;
• 1520 — the Stockholm Bloodbath;
• 1560 — the Massacre of Vassy;
• 1572 — the St. Bartholomew’s Night in France;
• 1588 — executions in London;
• 1739 — the Delhi Massacre;
• 1768 — the Uman Massacre;
• 1792 — the September Massacres (following a minimum in 1799) in France;
• 1860 — the massacre of Christians in the East;
• 1896 — the massacre in Constantinople and many others.

Elevation of popular and spiritual leaders, reformers, commanders, and statesmen:

• 395 — Alaric;
• 441 — Attila;
• 536 — Vitiges;
• 536 — Belisarius;
• 622 — Muhammad;
• 719 — Charles Martel;
• 1096 — Peter the Hermit;
• 1146 — Bernard of Clairvaux;
• 1306 — Robert the Bruce;
• 1365 — Wycliffe;
• 1367 — Tamerlane;
• 1381 — Wat Tyler;
• 1402-1412 — Hus;
• 1420 — Jan Žižka;
• 1429 — Joan of Arc;
• 1489 — Savonarola;
• 1519-1525 — Luther, Zwingli, Vasa, Müntzer;
• 1537 — Ignatius Loyola;
• 1605 — False Dmitry;
• 1605 — Vasily Shuisky;
• 1612 (max. 1615) — Minin, Pozharsky;
• 1625 — Zhmaylo;
• 1625 — Richelieu;
• 1626 — Wallenstein;
• 1637-1639 — Pavlyuk, Hunia, Ostryanitsa, Alexander Leslie;
• 1648 — Bohdan Khmelnytsky;
• 1648 — Oliver Cromwell;
• 1648 — Eugene of Savoy;
• 1769 — Hyder Ali;
• 1777 — Lafayette;
• 1777 — Washington;
• 1788 — Suvorov;
• 1805 — Wellington;
• 1839 — Shamil;
• 1848-1860 — Garibaldi;
• 1870 — Moltke;
• 1870 — Gambetta;
• 1917 — Kerensky;
• 1917 — Lenin.

Based on the above, it can be assumed that such outstanding figures of antiquity as Miltiades, Themistocles, Cimon, Pericles, Lysander, Pelopidas, Epaminondas, Hannibal, Marius, Sulla, Spartacus, Catiline, Vercingetorix, Caesar, Germanicus, Civilis, and many others first appeared on the arena of public life or first gained public significance during the epochs of maximum sunspot activity (the historio-metric table easily shows that the listed figures emerged precisely in the midst of concentrations of historical events).

Let us turn to Table 2, which presents a distribution of all the most important battles of the 5th century BC by year AD. Arranging the dates of remarkable ancient battles by centuries and decades over five centuries, it is easy to notice two striking patterns observed in the distribution of these events over time. The first consists in the amazing coincidence of the digits standing in the units and tens place of any historical date of one century with the digits standing in the corresponding units and tens place in the historical date of another century, or one to two to three centuries apart. For example:

• 490 — 390 — 191/190
• 362 — 260
• 410 — 212
• 480/479 — 280 279
• 340 — 241 — 42
• 606/604 — 406/405
• 371 — 272 — 33/7
• 401 — 301 — 202 — 102/101
• 168 — 69
• 526 — 425 — 225

The second pattern is observed in the distribution of these same dates within each century. It turns out that the dates of the noted battles, in most cases, are separated from each other by numbers that are multiples of 10-11 years — that is, by the interval between one and another maximum of solar activity. For example:

• 5th century: 490-480; 466-433; 433-425; 425-415; 415-405;
• 4th century: 390-371; 371-362; 362-340; 340-331; 381-301;
• 3rd century: 280-272; 272-270; 260-241; 241-222; 222-212; 212-202;
• 2nd century: 197-190; 190-168; 168-102;
• 1st century: 86-74; 74-66; 66-46; 46-80.

Let us take a few more examples showing the same multiplicity of dates for many historical events:

• 375 — 476 (101 years) — Main waves of the Great Migrations of Peoples;
• 622 — 632 (10 years) — The epoch of Muhammad’s activity;
• 1224-1235 (11 years) — Main waves of the Tatar invasion of Russia;
• 1380-1480 (100 years) — Main stages of the overthrow of Tatar rule;
• 1389-1448 (59 years) — Main stages of the struggle of the Turks with the Christian world: the first and second battles on the Kosovo Field;
• 1460-1471 (11 years) — Main stages of the War of the Roses in England;
• 1481-1492 (11 years) — Main stages of the struggle against the Moors in Spain;
• 1489-1498 (9 years) — The epoch of Savonarola’s activity;
• 1562—1572 (10 years) — Two bloody episodes: the Massacre of Vassy and St. Bartholomew’s Night;
• 1614-1789 (max.—max.) — The years of two convocations of the Estates General in France; from 1614 (max. solar activity) to 1789 (max. solar activity), the Estates General were not convened at all;
• 1702-1714 (12 years) — The War of the Spanish Succession;
• 1789-1804 (15 years, max.—max.) — Final stages of the republican system of the time of the French Revolution;
• 1830-1848 (max.—max.) — The July Revolution in France — the February Revolution and the pan-European crisis;
• 1848-1860 (max.—max.) — Garibaldi’s uprisings;
• 1905-1917 (max.—max.) — The 1st and 2nd Revolutions in Russia.

Many more such examples could be cited. Thus, historical life of the peoples oscillates from one maximum to another, and sometimes even across several maxima, guided by the directives of the cosmic factor. These oscillations can be traced throughout the entire history of humanity. If, for example, we attempt to outline the main stages in the life of the Greek countries and Rome, we will be convinced of their remarkable distribution. The same ratio with solar activity is found in all other mass phenomena occurring in human communities, namely:

1. Formation of religious, military, political, artistic, and commercial corporations, associations, unions, leagues, companies, and so on:
   • League of Lombard Cities ….. 1167 (maximum solar activity);
   • Hanseatic League ….. 1241 (maximum solar activity);
   • Swiss League ….. 1352 (maximum solar activity);
   • Swabian League ….. 1381 (maximum solar activity);
   • Cambrai League ….. 1508 (maximum solar activity);
   • League of Regensburg ….. 1530 (maximum solar activity);
   • League of Sacred Union ….. (1576) (maximum activity of the League of Sacred Union).
2. Spread of heresies and religious disorders, pilgrimages, political conspiracies are subject to the same regularity. For example, social “theories” spread mainly during periods of maximum excitability: Geneva and Lyon anarchists — 1880-82; Paris and Liège anarchists — 1892.

Let us briefly trace the history of the revolutionary movement in Russia in the past century:

• 1816 (max.) — the first political society in Russia;
• 1817 — the first secret society in Russia (Pestel);
• 1825 (beginning of the approaching max.) — the Decembrist Uprising;
• 1837 (max.) — Stankevich Circle;
• 1848 (max.) — Petrashevsky Circle;
• 1861 (max.) — the Emancipation of the Serfs;
• 1862 — disturbances in Russia;
• 1868 (min. solar activity) — closure of the journal “Kolokol” due to a drop in circulation to a minimum;
• 1869 — (max. in 1870) — beginning of the spread of socialist teachings;
• 1870 — “Narodnaya Volya”; brief revival of “Kolokol”; Chaikovsky Circle;
• 1871 — Nechaev Trial;
• 1872 — activities of Bakunin and Lavrov; beginning of epochs;
• 1875 (until the minimum) — disorganization of the socialists;
• 1876—7. 1880—81 (until the max.) — revival of the revolutionary movement in Russia: peasant disturbances, riots, armed resistance to police and troops, assassination attempts, murders, mass Jewish pogroms; “Pravda,” “Baltic Federalist,” and others;
• 1887 (until the min.) — 1895 — lull in the movement.

Social theories spread especially intensively during periods of maximum tension in solar activity. The idea of the end of the world, which was supposed to occur in the year 1000 AD, began to agitate medieval society even 10 years before the expected event (993 — max.). The idea of the “Peace of God,” which arose in 1030 (max.), spread throughout Europe in 1040 (max.); the Fronde in France — 1648-1653 (max.); the Dreyfus Affair — 1894-96 (max.); and many others.

4) Mass manifestations of morbid nervous-psychic activity in humans develop mainly during epochs of tension in sunspot formation. For example:

• 1374 — the Dancing Plague;
• 1500 — the Utrecht psychic epidemic;
• 1630 — a psychic epidemic in Madrid;
• 1642 — a psychic epidemic in Louvain;
• 1728-1738 — the Saint-Médard psychic epidemic.

Cholera, smallpox, and other diseases. Ozanam asserts that cholera was known even in the time of Hippocrates, raged mainly in China, where it was described by the Chinese physician Yang-Chon-Ko. Accurate indications of devastating cholera epidemics in the 14th century coincide with sunspot activity in 1365. Chinese chronicles (according to Hiragama) speak of large spots on the Sun visible to the naked eye in 1370 — that is, precisely during the period of the most intense outbreak of cholera epidemics described by the Persians. According to Riegler, a cholera epidemic appeared in Constantinople, Syria, Arabia, and Egypt shortly before the conquest of Byzantium by the Turks. The French traveler Sonnerat described a devastating cholera